Table 2 Potential constraints to prescribed burning in longleaf pine ecosystems. Abbreviations in parentheses are used for corresponding variables in this paper. Survey participants were asked how the specific factors listed here constrained prescribed burning in their management unit

 Limited incentives to burn and/or institutional history focused on fire suppression (Incentives)

Private landowners may not be able to finance frequent burning or may have other incentives for longleaf pine stands that don’t align with conservation efforts (ALRI 2009; Van Lear et al. 2005). Corporations may have limited access to publicly funded incentive programs and face higher costs to participate in conservation actions for at-risk species (ALRI 2009; McIntyre et al. 2018).

 Legal constraints (e.g., navigating the NEPA process) (Legal)

Burning takes place within the context of environmental laws, and the required analyses and review processes may be challenging to navigate or lead to management conflicts (Ryan et al. 2013).

 Challenges posed by agreements and partnerships (Partner)

Collaborative management efforts may face challenges in addressing conflicting interests, developing mutual trust and shared objectives among participants, and building flexible and adaptable approaches to changing conditions (Bodin 2017; Schultz et al. 2018; Costanza and Moody 2011).

 Avoiding public objections or concerns over the use of burning (PublicConcern)

Lack of public understanding of fire benefits and public concerns about fire impacts and risks are impediments to burning that require effective communication with nearby communities (ALRI 2009; Ryan et al. 2013; Wear and Greis 2013; Haines et al. 2001).

 Risk aversion (e.g., concern over liability, career, or political repercussions) (Risk)

Concerns about liability, career status, or other repercussions for escaped fires and smoke impacts may limit the use of prescribed fire as a management tool (ALRI 2009; Ryan et al. 2013; Kobziar et al. 2015; Melvin 2018; Yoder et al. 2004).

 Residential or other development in or near burn areas (WUI)

An expanding wildland-urban interface (WUI) increases fire risks, burning costs, and planning complexity due to a greater number of people and value of resources to be protected (Wear and Greis 2013; Waldrop and Goodrick 2012).

 Air quality (e.g., smoke management) (AirQuality)

While conducting prescribed fires, burn managers must apply appropriate techniques and adhere to air quality regulations regarding particulate matter and pollutants emerging from prescribed fires (Costanza and Moody 2011; Wear and Greis 2013; Haines et al. 2001; Melvin 2018; Cleaves et al. 2000; Blades et al. 2014; Wade and Mobley 2007).

 High fuel loads (FuelLoad)

Higher fuel loads alter fire behavior, increasing the complexity of a burn under some conditions and posing a greater risk of harm to human health, property, and the ecosystem (Ryan et al. 2013; Outcalt and Sheffield 1996; Varner et al. 2005; Quinn-Davidson and Varner 2012).

 Shortage of resources (personnel, money, equipment) (Resources)

Costs and lack of adequate personnel or necessary equipment may impede burning implementation (Haines et al. 2001; Kobziar et al. 2015; Cleaves et al. 2000; Chiodi et al. 2018).

 Inappropriate weather conditions (Weather)

Specific weather conditions (i.e., temperature, atmospheric moisture, wind, atmospheric stability and dispersion, precipitation, drought) are needed to ensure the safe and effective implementation of fire (Melvin 2018; Waldrop and Goodrick 2012; Chiodi et al. 2018).